Although his works probably have as much claim to artistic merit as those of any philosopher, Plato expressed a deep ambivalence about art. These two selections present one aspect of the negative side of his attitude. The question they address, the possibility of finding reality and knowledge in arts like poetry and painting, has a continuing relevance but had a special importance to Plato and his contemporaries. Poetry—in a variety of forms including epic, choral song, tragedy, and comedy—had a central place in Greek education and in intellectual life generally. Discussions of arts like poetry and painting were a natural approach to issues regarding any “art” in the broad sense of techne. Questions about of the relation between knowledge and various arts, but especially the art of governing, were important ones for Plato, as they had been for his teacher, Socrates.
• The first selection (HK 30-38) comes from Plato’s most important work, the Republic, a dialogue in which Socrates appears as a character (who speaks first in this selection and is the main speaker throughout). The bulk of the Republic is devoted to the description of an ideal state. This selection from its last book begins with a reference to an earlier discussion of the place of poetry and music in education. (That discussion appears on HK 8-29; it isn’t part of your assignment but you can find the discussion of imitative poetry referred to here on HK 19-23.) In class, we will focus on passages at the beginning and end of the selection.
• The first passage (HK 31-33) makes a distinction among three beds. Ask yourself what the basis for this distinction seems to be. Ask also whether Socrates is right in what he suggests about the degree of reality to be found in painting. If you’re wondering what a classical Greek image of a bed might be like here are links to a couple of vases that have illustrations of beds: Louvre G 355, London F 272. The first dates from about 40 years before Plato’s birth and the second to around the time of his death.
The term “idea” that is used in the translation of this selection can be misleading. Our word comes from the Greek word Plato uses (eidos); but its meaning has changed in recent centuries. The Greek term is the same as the one translated as “form” in Aristotle and the capitalized word “Form” is often used as a translation of it in Plato. The capitalization marks the difference between Plato’s and Aristotle’s concepts: Plato seemed to think of “ideas” or “forms” as similar to mathematical objects like numbers or geometrical shapes and as having an existence independent and higher than particular examples of them while Aristotle emphasized the combination of form and matter.
• Think critically about the distinction among the three arts on HK 37-38 at the end of the first selection. How well and in what way does this tripartite distinction correspond to the distinction among three artists at the end of the first passage (HK 32-33)?
• The second selection (HK 45-49) appears near the end of a dialogue whose announced topic is the definition of the sophist. Sophists were independent teachers, especially of argument and persuasion. Socrates was seen as a sophist by many of his contemporaries but tried to distinguish himself from them, so the characterization of the sophist is a natural topic for Plato to address (though much of the dialogue is in fact devoted to more abstract issues). Our selection breaks off before the definition is complete but our interest is instead in the implicit characterization of arts like poetry, painting, and music that is developed along the way.
The Stranger, who is the main speaker here, touches on ideas similar to those introduced by Socrates in the selection from the Republic. Note especially the discussion of the varieties of “image-making.” The selection begins with a reference to an earlier distinction between two sorts of image-making and it is worth reading, too:
Plato, Sophist (Jowett, tr.) 235c-236c
Str. Well, then, pursuing the same analytic method as before, I think that I can discern two divisions of the imitative art, but I am not as yet able to see in which of them the desired form is to be found.
Theaet. Will you tell me first what are two divisions of which you are speaking?
Str. One is the art of likeness-making;—generally a likeness of anything is made by producing a copy which is executed according to the proportions of the original, similar in length and breadth and depth, each thing receiving also its appropriate colour.
Theaet. Is not this always the aim of imitation?
Str. Not always; in works either of sculpture or of painting, which are of any magnitude, there is a certain degree of deception;—for artists were to give the true proportions of their fair works, the upper part, which is farther off, would appear to be out of proportion in comparison with the lower, which is nearer; and so they give up the truth in their images and make only the proportions which appear to be beautiful, disregarding the real ones.
Theaet. Quite true.
Str. And that which being other is also like, may we not fairly call a likeness or image?
Theaet. Yes.
Str. And may we not, as I did just now, call that part of the imitative art which is concerned with making such images the art of likeness making?
Theaet. Let that be the name.
Str. And what shall we call those resemblances of the beautiful, which appear such owing to the unfavourable position of the spectator, whereas if a person had the power of getting a correct view of works of such magnitude, they would appear not even like that to which they profess to be like? May we not call these "appearances," since they appear only and are not really like?
Theaet. Certainly.
Str. There is a great deal of this kind of thing in painting, and in all imitation.
Theaet. Of course.
Str. And may we not fairly call the sort of art, which produces an appearance and not an image, phantastic art?
Theaet. Most fairly.
Str. These then are the two kinds of image making-the art of making likenesses, and phantastic or the art of making appearances?
Theaet. True.
***
Here are some issues to think about in connection with these selections:
• Are images real things? If so, are there any limitations on their reality or qualifications to it?
• Do images provide knowledge? Is so, what sort of knowledge?
• Does making an image require knowledge? If so, what sort of knowledge?